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If the careful use of “energy” as a resource used to be for cost reasons, today there is also increased environmental awareness. All of this also becomes mandatory thanks to legal requirements and the state of the technology. In this article you can read about how continuous filter monitoring crucially influences the energy efficiency of a system and supports you in complying with legal requirements. Comparison: New filter – used filter Whether with air filters in ventilation and air-conditioning systems or oil filters in hydraulic circuits, in both cases, increasing contamination of the filter element causes an increasing pressure drop. In order to keep the flow of the medium (air or oil) constant, the fan or the pump (respectively) must apply more power. The energy consumption increases. Filter monitoring signals the increasing pressure drop across a contaminated filter element. Replacing a fouled filter ensures the flow of the medium and thus prevents the energy consumption of the fan or the pump from increasing. Legal bases With the adoption of the Kyoto Protocol in 1997, the European Union committed itself to reducing CO2 emissions. In order to reach this climate goal, in 2005 it adopted the EuP (Energy using Products) directive. In 2009, this was renamed the ErP directive (Energy-related Products directive) – also known as the Ecodesign directive.High resistance – high energy consumption It is easy to understand that a contaminated filter element is more resistant to the flow of a medium than a new, clean element. Physically, the pressure in the inlet (filter inlet) increases – which can be monitored very well using a pressure measuring instrument – and the flow rate is reduced. Since the required flow is specified, more energy must be introduced to compensate for the restriction in the filter. Pressure gauge with switch contact, model PGS21 Energy-related vs. cost-based considerations From an energetic point of view, a lightly soiled filter should be replaced straight away. This conflicts with the fact that the exchange itself generates material and labour costs. In addition, the exchange can only take place in the absence of both pressure and flow, and thus the machine or the process must be stopped. Based on these considerations, it is also clear that an exchange after a fixed period of use, as we are familiar with annual services on cars, for example, is not an optimal solution. Costs of filter changeCompromise: Filter monitoring The compromise is an acceptable level of contamination – meaning a specified maximum differential pressure across the filter. Normal limit values for the differential pressure (ΔP) of a hydraulic filter are between 1 and 5 bar. In ventilation systems, the limit values are between 50 to 5,000 Pa (0.5 to 50 mbar). Monitoring the pressure drop saves on operating costs, since changing out the filters only happens when close to reaching the accepted level of contamination of the filter. A further advantage is that, through continuous monitoring, the filter replacement can be scheduled into the operational process. Filter monitoring through measuring the pressure drop In each case, the pressure drop across the filter is measured – so ΔP between the filter inlet and outlet. However, the pressure loss across the filter also increases with the volume flow. The ΔP as a indicator of the contamination of the filter may therefore only be assessed in the defined operating state (flow and medium temperature). Filters for liquids can exceed the ΔP limit as a result of brief pressure peaks. Due to inertia, these are not an issue for mechanical switches. For sensors, it is advisable to provide a short dead time in the electronic evaluation (control). Special case: Filter monitoring in hydraulic circuits The return filters in a hydraulic circuit are a special case. As the name suggests, these are in the return line, just before the oil flows back into the tank. There is ambient pressure (atmospheric pressure) in the tank. This means that ambient pressure is also present at the filter outlet. This simplifies monitoring, since a differential pressure sensor can now take over the measuring task. This has a favourable effect on the costs of filter monitoring. On the one hand, these pressure sensors are less expensive than differential pressure sensors. On the other hand, you save on needing a pressure line from the filter outlet to the low-pressure connection of the ΔP sensor. Temperature measurement of the oil is essential in hydraulic circuits. This enables the high viscosity of the hydraulic oil, which is still cold when starting, to be taken into account, thus avoiding false alerts. The hydraulic oil temperature is required to control the oil cooler. It has a significant influence on the time over which the oil is used. Calculation of the excessive differential pressure due to the high viscosity of cold oil The trend in filter monitoring Pressure sensor A-1200 with IO-Link From “preventive maintenance” to “Industry 4.0” to IIoT cloud solutions – there is a demand for data everywhere. This can be seen clearly in the change from traditional measuring instruments with optical displays to electrical sensors with analogue or digital output signals. When monitoring pressure filters, we can see the trend to replace the differential pressure sensor with gauge pressure sensors before and after the filter. This gives one both the system pressure and the pressure at the outlet of the filter, which a differential pressure sensor does not offer. The pressure drop, the difference between the two signals, is then calculated in the electronic control, in the edge computer or in the cloud. WIKA

India’s decision to allow drones for COVID-19 relief operations will pave the way for use in commercial applications, says GlobalData a leading data and analytics company. Presently in the country drones have now become one of the most trusted tools to monitor COVID-19 situations. From sanitizing cities to monitoring crowd and lockdown violators and providing medical aid to hard reach areas, drones are being used in every part of the country to fight with the novel coronavirus. A recent effort by the Ministry of Civil Aviation proves that the Government of India has finally realized the importance of technology and how it can increase the pace of relief of work. In a new initiative, the Ministry of Civil Aviation (MoCA) and Directorate General of Civil Aviation (DGCA) have launched the GARUD portal earlier this month that provides conditional exemptions to agencies involved in drone operations and opened up avenues to use drones for non-defense related application in the country. GARUDA that stands for Government Authorisation for Relief Using Drones is meant to fast track the exemption requests that were coming from government entities for Remotely Piloted Aircraft System (RPAS) operations. Nidhi Gupta, Technology Analyst at GlobalData says, “With conventional strategies failing to control the spread of COVID-19 in the country, frontline government authorities are tapping the power of drones for applications such as monitoring crowd gathering and movement through surveillance, enforcing social distancing norms, spraying disinfectants, and delivering medicines.” The step has been taken to aid government entities in addressing the challenges posed by COVID-19 and it will remain in force until further orders. The conditional exemption shall be limited to RPAS deployed by a government entity for aerial surveillance, aerial photography and public announcements related to COVID-19. With this new initiative, the MoCA has granted exemptions earlier this month to 13 consortia, including those initiated by budget airline SpiceJet, Google-backed Dunzo and drone maker Throttle Aerospace to operate drones on an experimental basis without requiring operator permits and unique identification numbers till 30 September 2020.The move enables them to pilot drone operations beyond visual line of sight (BVLOS) for transporting goods, once approved. Earlier in April 2020, the DGCA had also approved operations by no-permission-no-take-off compliant drones in several green (low risk to COVID-19) zones across the country. Will GARUD change eco-system of Drones? Gupta says, “Encouraged by the government’s new found focus on easing norms for flying drones, more businesses are now seeking to develop drone-based capabilities such as B2B and B2C deliveries, medical supplies, and movement of packages for air-cargo, which indicates the tremendous potential in store for commercial drone applications in the country going forward.” The question that remains unanswered is, will GARUD change the eco-system of the drone industry in India even after COVID-19. The country that has been working on a drone policy since 2018 and came with policy 1.0 and 2.0 and also launched Digital Sky has not yet allowed the drones to fully take charge. While these drone policy established an intricate system of application and approval procedures, but also ignored various implications. The GARUD portal that has been launched to provide relief during this pandemic situation still imposes certain restrictions, which means the potential of the technology cannot yet be fully harnessed. In opinion of Brijesh Pandey, CEO and Founder of GarudaUAV , “The GARUD portal is a welcome policy intervention by the DGCA. It puts all COVID-19 related drone permissions on the fast-track but this has not added much value to regular drone services providers. This is merely the tip of the iceberg. By and large, the Indian drone industry suffers from a plethora of bureaucratic strangleholds. Getting approvals for regular drone flights is still challenging”. While currently, India allows drone operations only within visual line of sight of an operator, thus restricting their use mainly to surveillance. Flying drones Beyond Visual Line of Sight (BVLOS) that can allow autonomous and long-range drones’ operation that is essential for drone-based deliveries is still in operational stage. If the drone industry is to see sustainable growth and continued investor interest, then the government has to expedite all the requisite policy interventions like Digital Sky. Let’s not forget that any industry is only as good or as bad as its prevalent government policy, adds Pandey. Saksham Bhutani, CEO and founder of Indshine says, “GARUD is an interim platform for COVID-19 based permission approvals. However no one followed this and people have flown drone irrespective of permission. Although the purpose of launching interim platform was genuine to speed up the permission process, but sad, no one followed. This is not going to be there after COVID and there will only be Digital Sky platform like before for all sort of things. Just, in interim, to allow smooth use of UAVs some relaxation has been made for fast process the applications”. GEOSPATIAL WORLD

Industrial manufacturing has come a long way since the stone ages. In modern days, companies are using a series of sheet metal cutting systems to create prototypes and products. With its growing popularity, laser cutting has become more accessible to many manufacturers. Once only available for high end companies with deep pockets, any manufacturer can get their hands on this ever-growing process. In this article, I will discuss the ins and outs about this process and how it can be beneficial to your company. What Is Laser Cutting? It’s a kind of technology that uses a concentrated beam of light to cut through different kinds of metals. Because the light beam is so focused, it generates a lot of energy towards a piece of metal ultimately burning, vaporizing, and melting whatever comes in its way. This cutter is connected to a CNC (Computer Numerical Control) machine. Which uses smart software that digitally designs a 2D prototype. This design is then translated in a series of instructions to the cutter. Almost like a printer, but instead of releasing ink onto a paper, it releases a powerful laser that cuts intricate shapes in hard materials. What is the Origin? First used to cut diamonds by drilling holes, the laser cutter was first produced in 1965 by the Western Electric Engineering Research Center. In 1967, the British improved the design by incorporating oxygen jet cutting. It was used to melt through titanium used in aerospace productions. Carbon Dioxide cutters were later used to cut through non-metal materials. Different Types There are three different types available in the market: Carbon Dioxide, A Neodymium yttrium-aluminum-garnet (Nd:YAG) and the neodymium (Nd). Carbon Dioxide – uses radio frequency energy or a gas mix. They are typically used for industrial purposes as they can cut a number of different materials including plastic, titanium stainless steel, wood, wax, mild steel, and paper. YAG – YAG can scribe and cut through ceramics and different kind of metals. Typically used for designs that are very simple and easy – not too intricate. Nd – Similar to the YAG as it uses high energy. It can’t repeat as many designs in one go and is typically used in low repetition projects. All the above-mentioned types can also be used as welding machines to connect different metals together. The strength of the beam depends on the thickness of the material. Depending on what the design or intensity is, the machine will be set to a certain setting. That’s why it needs an experienced and trained operator. For example, a 500 W machine can cut through a 2mm steel sheet, while a 40 W machine can glide through cardboard, paper, thin plastic and foam. What are the Advantages? When manufacturers use this machine instead of cutting sheet metal manually, there are great advantages. It provides the following advantages: VERSATILITY There’s no need to use an array of different tools, as the laser is able to cut a variety of different shapes. The cut isn’t made through a series of separate lines, but rather one fluent one that can be turned and twisted according to the design. ACCURACY The strong light beam achieves great precision. It can read and follow instructions up to a fraction of a millimeter. Therefore, it creates a high standard and precise product. Because this machine works with such precision, the edges of the metal usually doesn’t show burr. This also makes buffing and polishing much easier and faster. FAST AND EFFECTIVE Engineers have resorted to using a laser light cutter because it is much faster than a technician. Traditional designing can take an extremely long time, especially when it’s small and intricate shapes that need to be made with delicate tools. BETTER THAN OTHER METHODS Flame and plasma cutting are other methods used by manufacturers to create the same product. Using a concentrated laser beam can cut seamlessly through a metal thickness of up to 10mm. No tools are damaged throughout the process, since it’s a contactless method. Extra Accessories that Go with the Laser Cutter A great addition to the laser cutter is a bending machine. It assists in that it makes dies for the cutting machine. It helps to bend and crease a piece of sheet metal and even create a box type form. Function Laser cutters are mainly used to cut through sheets of metal, wood, cardboard, or plastic. Manufacturers use this technique during the sheet metal prototyping process. Typically used in 2D designs, tracing a path onto a sheet to cut out forms. Using 2D vector drawings that’s imported into a smart software, you’ll be able to start the process. How to Create a 2D Model It’s a much easier process than creating a 3D model for a 3D cutter or printer. Using the correct kind of software, you should start by drawing a 2D image in a vector style. The image should follow a few rules: The lines of the image should be closed. There can’t be any gaps where the lines have to meet. Check with the service or machine operator how thick the lines must be as well as the color of the lines. Use fillets to be able to use most of the flat sheet Create round holes in areas where you’d like to use a drill later for precision. Once the 2D prototype has been designed it should be saved in a file format that can be read by the laser cutter. From here, manufacturers (and even hobbyists) have two options. You can either send the design to a service that will do the cutting for you or if you have your own machine on site, you can log it in. For manufacturers that are constantly creating new prototypes it will be a time efficient investment to buy your own laser cutter. These powerful laser beam machines are extremely beneficial and a clever investment for any manufacturing company. STEEL AVAILABLE

Conveyors are the workhorse of industry. Without them, materials wouldn’t be able to move from point A to point B, product lines would grind to a halt, and industry as we know it would be an impossibility. In fact, conveyors are so ubiquitous that they are often taken for granted, as many consider them a mere rudimentary cog in the production process, rather than a potential canvas for innovation.However, as Industry 4.0 paves the way for a more networked, digital industrial landscape—including mass customization and just-in-time manufacturing—the demand for increased flexibility in both the intralogistics and manufacturing spaces means that conveyance systems are being looked at with renewed attention.“In the past, conveyors were usually just an afterthought. People would set up production lines and the conveyors would be added sometime later just to transport materials back and forth,” says Bryant Boyd, senior electrical engineer at Bosch Rexroth. “Now we see people beginning to spec the conveyor system first, and we’re beginning to think of conveyance as being the base for automation. The conveyor can set the line speed, and it can tell your automation system where things should be based on cuing, rotation, and precision.”According to Richard Canny, president at Ultimation Industries, distributed power and control have been major enablers of this shift. Whereas a single, large motor once drove a chain conveyor carrying many loads, the growing use of smaller motors coupled with variable frequency drives (VFDs) and digital feedback sensors has allowed production lines to be broken into separate zones, each of which starts and stops whenever necessary, allowing for more precise positioning of products, energy efficiency gains, and improved overall equipment effectiveness.The EP7402 EtherCAT Box from Beckhoff is a two-channel motor output stage for BLDC motors used in motor-driven roller conveyors.Motor-driven roller conveyorsKnown as MDRs (motor driven roller conveyors), these distributed conveyance systems are a tremendous boon in distribution centers, where cases and packages of different sizes frequently move along the same line. By preventing disparate products from ever physically touching, MDRs can prevent back-pressure and the friction that comes with it, reducing wear and tear on equipment and increasing energy efficiency. Not only that, in Ultimation’s case a separate controller can operate without being included in a programmable logic controller’s programming, making deployment and integration less taxingIn addition, the same feedback mechanisms that allow the varying zones of an MDR to communicate with one another and adjust their speed accordingly can act as portals for digital condition monitoring. With sensors attuned to amperage, temperature, torque, and myriad other performance indicators, the advanced motors and drives built into MDR systems can provide a powerful tool for predictive maintenance.According to Dorner, the FlexMove conveyors are designed to integrate with conveyors, machinery, and equipment already built onto the manufacturing line.“What is going on with your conveyance performance from a maintenance perspective? How much amperage is the motor drawing? Are the bearings at an elevated temperature? How many hours of operation does the belt have on it? We use all of this data to provide predictive maintenance information to our customers,” says Mike Hosch, vice president for industrial products at Dorner. “In the past, you either had to wait until equipment failed—which is obviously not what you want to do—or you had to put in some preventative maintenance steps where you might be replacing something that still has life in it. Now, instead of replacing a bearing or belt at 15,000 hours when it could have gone 18,000, we replace it at 17,500 and gain more production life.”And while MDRs have been predominantly deployed in the intralogistics space, Hosch foresees their eventual adoption in large assembly operations as well, particularly as their payload capacity improves.ActiveMotor is a modular transfer system featuring a linear motor, which makes it flexible for use in a variety of industrial applications.Flexible technologiesIndustry’s general drive for ever-greater flexibility has also led to the development of more nimble conveyance systems. For instance, B&R Industrial Automation’s AcoposTrak utilizes independently controlled shuttles to transport products between processing stations. Its design is particularly well-suited to the increasing demand for mass customization currently sweeping over the market for consumer goods. By employing a series of looped tracks, AcoposTrak is able to diverge and merge individual products into small, customized batches. For example, a customer who placed an online order could be provided with a six-pack of sodas featuring a flavor combination of their choosing“You could automate meal kit production so that each shuttle was programmed to produce a customized meal. So, you wouldn’t just have to say, ‘I have peas, carrots, mashed potatoes, and meatloaf.’ Instead, you could say, ‘I want three slices of meat loaf instead of two, mashed potatoes with double gravy, no peas, and double carrots,” says John Kowal, marketing director at B&R Industrial Automation. “The consumer could actually order that online, and it could be delivered directly from the production line.”According to Kowal, meeting the demand for customization should be a priority for manufacturers because, if they don’t, someone else will.Beyond customization applications, other conveyance benefits of AcoposTrak include easing small batch production. Its set of looped tracks allow for parallel processing, meaning that multiple stations can perform the same process concurrently. If a piece of equipment—such as a bottle filler head—breaks down, remaining products can be redirected through a different route without ceasing production.The AcoposTrak from B&R transports products from processing stations on independently controlled shuttles.Another added benefit is that AcoposTrak can shrink a conveyance system’s footprint. Not only is space saved when fewer make-to-stock products are kept on hand, but the conveyor itself is smaller due to its reduced need for buffering, accumulation, and queuing of goods. With floor space often at a premium, the shrinkage is significant. Kowal estimates that AcoposTrak can decrease the space required for product transport by up to 50%.Modular conveyance systems are also becoming an increasingly popular product from automation technology providers. Bosch Rexroth, for example, offers its conveyors in configurable segments that can be flexibly assembled to accommodate a plant’s unique needs upon initial installation and reduce changeover times during any subsequent reconfigurations.CAD software and digital twin simulations have proven essential in such applications. Through software like Bosch Rexroth’s MTpro, conveyance layouts can be digitally prototyped prior to actual setup, allowing for less risk and far more accurate planning. And while end users can certainly benefit in that regard, machine builders looking to prove the viability of innovative new designs stand to gain as well.“Very often, machine builders with a new design have to invest in a prototype machine to bring to a trade show. It’s all speculative, and they don’t know if they’re going to be able to sell it or even if it’s going to work,” Kowal says. “With a simulation, they’re going to know it’s going to work before they spend any money; and a lot of machine builders are smaller companies, so they can’t afford to make any mistakes. In addition to helping end users and manufacturers plan ahead, this is going to help machine builders innovate by removing risk. It’s a win-win.”Ultimation MDRs enable a zero pressure accumulation, meaning parts move along the MDRs until they get close to, but do not touch, the product unit in front.The importance of integrationAs conveyance continues to grow more flexible, adaptive, and intelligent, integration with other automation technologies will rise to the forefront, says Matt Prellwitz, motion control product manager at Beckhoff USA. With many robotics technologies requiring the use of a conveyor, the capacity for highly precise positioning, as well as the ability to communicate and synchronize with other devices, will be paramount.In situations where six-axis robotic arms are employed, a conveyor may actually come to represent a seventh axis. For instance, both B&R and Bosch Rexroth offer conveyors capable of positioning products within microns of accuracy to coordinate their alignment with the motion of a robotic arm. In automobile manufacturing too, large component parts with complex three-dimensional shapes can prove difficult to manipulate without the assistance of crowders and stabilizers which must be able to coordinate with conveyors.According to Kowal, companies that can offer conveyance systems, robotics, and machine vision sensors as a holistic package may be positioned to win big by eliminating the complexities that accompany communication between products from various vendors.Canney suggests that the shift toward distributed power and control occurring in conveyance systems could mirror the transformation of the overall industry landscape. Whereas large centralized facilities were once the lynchpin of effective operations, he sees them being supplanted by a digitally optimized web of smaller factories and distribution centers making use of faster, more modular technologies.“We look ahead and see a world where humans, robots, and conveyors will work closely together in the same physical space,” Canney says. “We believe that, in the next decade, the entire supply chain will be automated—and that’s going to include conveyance, robotics, automated loading and unloading, transport systems, and even autonomous electric vehicles. Advanced conveyors are going to be a big part of enabling this, so we truly see these technologies moving together in synergy.”AUTOMATION WORLD

A valve is a device that regulates, guides or manages the flowing of fluids (gases, oils, fluidized solids or slurries) by opening, closing or partly hindering the different passageways. The valves are actually fittings but are generally referred to as different types. In an open valve, the fluid moves in a path from higher to lower pressure. In industrial settings, valves are widely used for a number of purposes. Valves are available in a variety of different types, but stainless steel valves have become more common for industrial applications. Let us discuss the advantages of the usage of stainless steel valves in commercial systems. Advantages of SS Instrumentation Valves- Durability One of the main advantages of stainless steel valves over valves manufactured of other types of metal is that they are extremely reliable and robust. Stainless steel 316 Instrumentation valves can be used at any temperature and do not have any issues when operating in very hot or exceptionally cold conditions. If a company wants to purchase high-quality steel valves, they will rely on them to operate and remain in good condition for a long time. Considering how long-lasting and reliable stainless steel valves are, they are a really good investment that is sustainable in the long run. High-Pressure Resistance When you need valves that operate under high strain, stainless steel is the best way to go. Since SS is an extremely strong and durable product, the valves made of this material will withstand the pressure that would break or crack the valve made of plastic / PVC, brass or bronze. Always make sure that you know how much psi of pressure the valve will be under — for very high rates of pressure, stainless steel valves may be the only ones that are designed to be able to sustain pressure without damage. Free From Corrosion The components of metal which make up stainless steel are not prone to rust or corrosion. This makes the use of stainless steel valves the better option for industrial applications where the conditions may cause the metal to rust or corrode quickly. Although plastic valves are also not susceptible to rust or corrosion, they do not have the strength, reliability or high-pressure tolerance of stainless steel. No Leaking Stainless Steel 304 Instrumentation Valves have a hydraulic system designed to avoid any leaks. This feature of stainless steel valves is very important, particularly when dealing with something to which exposure may be toxic or harmful. Stainless steel valves, even under high pressure or under extreme temperature conditions, do not leak. Leak-free stainless steel valves are available in a range of sizes and designs so choosing the right ones for any form of commercial or automotive applications is not difficult. Uses of Stainless Steel Valves: Controlling Water for Irrigation Industrial Uses for Controlling Processes Residential Uses Military and Transport Sector ISTEEL INDIA

Heralded as an important catalyst for the changing face of manufacturing and supply chains, additive manufacturing is back in the limelight. It’s with good reason. The layer-by-layer additive techniques, clubbed under the umbrella term of 3D printing, are being extensively employed to help save lives as governments across the world battle to flatten the COVID-19 curve. While companies like Isnnova and Lonati SpA have 3D printed valves for ventilators, others firms like RapidMade are now producing emergency personal protective equipment (PPE) such as lightweight plastic face masks with built-in removable filters as well as face shields. Groups like the Covid Maker Response (CMR) are also manufacturing, assembling and distributing 3D-printed PPE to health care workers on the front lines. CMR was founded by members of Columbia University Libraries, Tangible Creative and MakerBot.Cloud-based 3D printing software has further given manufacturers the ability to easily make any part on demand, boosting the cause of additive manufacturing. 3D printing, however, is not just about plastic, although the story of 3D printing did begin in the 1980s with plastic, which remains the most widely used material. This is not surprising since plastic is readily available, comparatively inexpensive and well established in a variety of extrusion processes. That said, 3D printers today also use metals, alloys and composites. These materials are being used not only to make PPE and other medical equipment, but also jewelry and toothbrushes, football boots, racing-car parts, machine parts, custom-designed cakes, human organs, houses and airplane parts, among countless other items.Metals and alloys such as aluminum, steel, stainless steel, gallium, titanium and cobalt-chromium are widely used in the aeronautics, automotive and biomedical industries, and use processes such as selective laser sintering (SLS), direct metal laser sintering (DMLS) or e-beam (EBM). 3D printers also use materials such as ceramics, sand, organic materials, marble, stone, and wood, depending on the applications. The Power of Composites Composite and metal 3D-printed parts fulfil different roles on the factory floor and can complement each other to support production. Using both a metal and a composite printer provides the flexibility to leverage the strengths of both materials and create extremely functional tools[MG1] . (Image courtesy of MG1.) Composites, which are now getting their due in the field of 3D printing, can be broadly defined as materials that contain a reinforcement (such as fibers or particles) supported by a binder (matrix) material. The matrix provides a medium for binding and holding reinforcements together in a solid. Most composites offer significantly high advantages in terms of their specific strength (strength-to-weight ratio) and specific stiffness (stiffness-to-weight ratio). Composites can be broadly classified according to reinforcement forms—particulate reinforced, fiber reinforced, or laminar composites. Fiber-reinforced composites can be further divided as those containing discontinuous or continuous fibers. Fiber-reinforced composites, which contain reinforcements having lengths much greater than their cross-sectional dimensions, are considered to be discontinuous or short fibers if their properties vary by fiber length. Otherwise, these composites are considered to be continuous fiber reinforced[MG2] . The percentage of fiber used and the base thermoplastic determine how strong the final part is. In the case of continuous fiber, long strands of fiber are mixed with a thermoplastic, like PLA, ABS, nylon, PETG and PEEK during the printing process. Parts that are 3D printed with continuous fiber are extremely lightweight yet as strong as metal. The composite AM opportunity can grow to a nearly $10 billion in yearly global business. (Image courtesy of SmarTech Publishing.) Why Single out Carbon Fiber? Most 3D printers capable of processing composite materials are based on the polymer-extrusion process, known as fused filament fabrication (FFF). In FFF, a nozzle moves above the build platform, extrudes a melted thread of plastic called a filament, and creates an object layer-by-layer. Carbon fiber is one of the most popular types of fibers used in 3D printing, followed by fiberglass and Kevlar. If you need a strong yet light 3D-printed machinery part, you may want to consider carbon fiber. It’s a solid material that is incredibly strong—five times stronger than steel—yet significantly lighter in weight. Hence, carbon fibers find applications in aerospace, road and marine transport, sporting goods, audio equipment, loudspeakers for hi-fi equipment, pickup arms, robot arms, automobile hoods, novel tooling, casings surgery and X-ray equipment, implants, valves, seals, and pump components in process plants, and radiological equipment, among others. Composition Carbon fibers are mostly made from polyacrylonitrile (90 percent), with the remaining 10 percent made from rayon or petroleum pitch—all organic polymers formed by a long string of molecules bound together by carbon molecules. The raw material used to make carbon fiber is called the precursor. It is drawn into long strands heated to a very high temperature without allowing them to come in contact with oxygen so that the fiber cannot burn. The process called carbonization creates long, tightly woven fibers that are coated to protect them from damage during winding or weaving. The 3D printing of filaments containing chopped fibers requires only a hardened steel nozzle to resist abrasive fiber strands. The FFF process for continuous fiber printing, however, requires a second nozzle to separately deposit a single, uninterrupted strand of fiber. Pros and Cons Carbon fiber has many positive qualities. It has a high specific strength, or strength-to-weight ratio. It is highly rigid, corrosion resistant, and chemically stable. It has good tensile strength—the maximum stress that a material can withstand while being stretched or pulled before necking, or failing. Carbon fiber is fire resistant and has a low coefficient of thermal expansion—a measure of how much a material expands and contracts when the temperature increases or decreases. Carbon fiber is also nonpoisonous, biologically inert and X-ray permeable—qualities that make it beneficial in medical applications. However, carbon fiber is also electrically conductive, which can be both helpful and troublesome. In addition, it is relatively expensive. Further, carbon fibers are brittle—its layers are formed by strong covalent bonds, which allow for cracks at very low strain. Chopped Carbon Fiber In this method, the carbon fiber is already integrated into the filament and is ready to print on an FFF 3D printer (right nozzle and heated bed). A base material (PLA, nylon, or other thermoplastics) is mixed with extremely small bits of carbon fiber. These small carbon fiber strands are abrasive, so the 3D printer will require a hardened steel nozzle or other tough nozzle to resist them. Parts printed with this type of filament are stronger than regular thermoplastic prints, but the percentage of fiber used and the base thermoplastic (among other variables) determine the strength of the final product. Consider the case of vehicle drive systems made of components that deliver power to the driving wheels, and which require complex under-the-hood assemblies that are configured using a complex series of tools and jigs that are fully customized for builds. Rather than use CNCs to machine gauges, electric vehicles solution provider Dayco 3D printed them in Onyx (from Markforged). The 3D-printed material is a low cost, high strength thermoplastic made up of nylon and chopped carbon fiber. 3D printing helped Dayco automate the production of these parts, freeing up skilled CNC machining labor to focus on manufacturing high-value production processes. Dayco, according to Markforged, also saved 70 percent in costs and halved its overall production time from 200 to 100 hours. Another case in point is that of Utah Trikes—a producer of trikes, quads and custom wheelchairs—which needed the ability to make prototype pieces it could actually test, and which would be both cost- and time-efficient. A pedal-powered wheelchair in production at Utah Trikes has 450 distinct parts, 120 of which are 3D printed. The company used the Stratasys FDM Nylon 12CF, which has given Utah Trikes the “... ability to now design and print on-site, which has cut production time from two months to two weeks, reducing the company’s costs 8-10 times,” according to the Stratasys website. Other filament manufacturers of short fiber composites include Roboze, 3DXTech, Proto-Pasta and colorFabb. The future Bets on Continuous Carbon Fiber Companies that use the continuous 3D printing method include Markforged, Anisoprint, CEAD, Roboze, EnvisionTEC and Impossible Objects. Continuous carbon fiber 3D printers typically range between $14,000 and $250,000, depending on the size and applications. The continuous fiber method was first introduced by Markforged in 2014, when the company launched the Mark One. While the Mark One has been replaced by a new generation of 3D printers, the technology hasn’t changed. Typically, the printer is equipped with two nozzles—one to extrude the plastic filament and the other to simultaneously lay down carbon fiber strands. The technology goes by different names with a few variations. While Markforged calls it Continuous Filament Fabrication (CFF), start-up Anisoprint has christened it Composite Fiber Co-extrusion (CFC As an example of the practical applications of this technology[MG3] , para-athlete diver Dmitry Pavlenko needed a lever to control air inflation and release for maintaining buoyancy and manoeuvrability. He began by using a steel spoon as a lever, but it broke after the 10th dive. Another lever was printed on an Anisoprint Composer 3D printer from PETG (a glycol-modified version of polyethylene terephthalate (PET), which is commonly used to manufacture water bottles) and reinforced with composite carbon fiber in a bid to increase the life span of the part. Pavlenko believes the Anisoprint-printed part will survive 100 dives. Silicon Valley-based AREVO’s proprietary process is based on Directed Energy Deposition (DED) technology, where a laser is used to heat the filament and carbon fiber at the same time as a roller compresses the two materials together. Its additive manufacturing process features patented software algorithms enabling generative design techniques, free-motion robotics for “true 3D” construction, and DED “for virtually void free construction all optimized for anisotropic composite materials,” according to the company. As an example of its technology at work, AREVO produces 3D-printed carbon fiber unibody frames for a new line of e-bikes called EVE9 from the Pilot Distribution Group BV—a leader in bike design and production. “AREVO’s continuous carbon fiber technology is very impressive as it affords numerous design possibilities and provides excellent strength and durability,” said Arno Pieterse from Pilot. According to a September 2019 press statement, Hemant Bheda, Cofounder and Chairman of AREVO, sees “near-term applicability (of this technology) in other areas of green urban mobility, from electric scooters to e-VTOLs, or flying cars.” Impossible Objects and EnvisionTEC have added systems for continuous fiber 3D printing to their range of machines. There’s a technology twist, though, since they weave in sheets of carbon fiber into a print by using a lamination process. On its part, Continuous Composites[MG4] uses a hybrid technology where the strand of fiber is soaked with resin and then hardened using UV light, a process similar to SLA 3D printing. Switzerland-based 9T Labs uses a 3D printing process it calls Additive Fusion Technology (AFT)—the reinforcement is made from a carbon-filled material instead of pure carbon fibers. The method that U.S.-based Continuous Composites employs is called Continuous Fiber 3D Printing (CF3D). It feeds a roll of dry carbon fiber into a print head mounted on a seven-axis industrial robot. Inside of the print head, the fiber is impregnated with a rapid curing photopolymer resin and is then extracted through the end effector and instantly cured with a powerful energy source. Market Opportunity The global 3D printing market size was valued at $12 billion in 2019 and is expected to expand at a CAGR exceeding 14 percent from 2020 to 2027, according to a February 2020 note by market research firm Grand View Research Inc. The polymer (or loosely, plastics) segment accounted for the largest market share in 2019 as compared to the metal and ceramic segments. However, the metal segment is anticipated to hold the largest market share and continue leading 3D printing market share over the forecast period. According to Stratview Research, additive manufacturing is still at a nascent stage in the composites industry. Still, the technology does possess huge opportunities in most of the industry verticals, including aerospace, defence and automotive. The global 3D printed composites market is pegged to reach $190 million in 2024, according to Stratview Research. Carbon fiber, the research firm adds, is projected to remain the largest reinforcement type in the market during the forecast period. Market research firm IDTechEx is much more bullish. It forecasts the global market for composite 3D printing will touch $1.7 billion in value by 2030. The high demand for lightweight components in the structural applications for improving fuel efficiency or reducing carbon emissions is expected to be the leading growth driver of the increased demand for carbon fibers in major industries such as aerospace, defense and automotive. As is evident from the examples above, continuous carbon fiber 3D printing can produce parts that boast high strength, stiffness, and dimensional stability. These parts are light, have a great surface finish, and can be mixed with many different kinds of thermoplastic materials. However, 3D printing parts with carbon fiber remains expensive. Costs, though, are expected to fall as companies increasingly see its utility. With rising volumes, carbon fiber 3D printing may live up to the promising forecasts. ENIGINEERING.COM

I received an email from Lynn Fifer, a retired cutting tool professional and CTE reader since 1967, who shared his recollections about the development of the parabolic flute drill. Fifer said the development occurred in 1950s at the old Mohawk Tools Inc., Montpelier, Ohio, well before he started with the toolmaker in 1967. Fifer stated Frank Hofbauer, company founder and CEO, took a trip to his home country, Germany, to see some customers, as well as visit family and relatives. Volkswagen was one such customer, which was facing challenges with deep-hole drilling aluminum engine blocks. Hofbauer returned home with part prints and application information for his son Bill to work on. Mohawk also received aluminum engine blocks for test drilling. “Like any tool engineer, Bill looked at the cross section of a drill and tried to come up with a design that would allow a lot of chips to flow up the flutes without any restrictions but still retain adequate longitudinal column strength,” Fifer noted. “He increased the web to about 38% of diameter for strength, which decreased the flute capacity. So to increase capacity, he rolled off the heal of the land to open up the flutes. With a heavy web at the point, and so as not to restrict chip flow, it would need to be a straight or parallel web.” Usually, a drill with a thick web requires web thinning or a split point, Fifer continued. “A flatter point angle would direct the chips into the flute better, but the conventional split or crankshaft drill point didn’t work well in aluminum, so the split was modified with a radius and the web across the center was increased slightly for the aluminum.” After successfully testing the drill, Fifer stated that Bill Hofbauer was not satisfied with having to take two passes during the flute grinding operation and brought in a man named Bill Hertlein to design a horizontal dresser to generate the parabolic flute in one pass. Eventually, the head of Guhring at the time saw the unique drill at the VW factory, Fifer added. “A patent was never sought, and the GT 100 was born,” he noted about Guhring’s parabolic drill. “The rest is history.” KENNAMETAL

When we talk about Stainless Steel, the first thing which comes to our mind is Durability in this article we are going to discuss the advantages of stainless steel fasteners. While Stainless steel is a general term given to a large range of corrosion-resistant steel alloys, essentials of these alloys include chromium, nickel, iron, manganese, silicon, carbon, nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus, molybdenum, titanium, niobium, copper, tungsten and vanadium. When the proportions are changed, the characteristics of the consequential alloy change. Why Stainless Steel Fasteners Are Termed As Best? The most primary reason why Stainless Steel Fasteners are regarded as the best ones is their corrosion-resistant nature. They possess an exceptional life cycle, are environmentally friendly and also 100% Recyclable. Stainless Steel Fasteners also resist high heat as well as extremely cold temperatures making them ideal choice for almost any application. These Stainless Steel Fasteners are available in a wide variety of forms like Stainless Steel Bolts, Stainless Steel Nuts, Stainless Steel Washers, Stainless Steel Screws, etc. We can categorize its qualities in the following manner: Resistance to corrosion SS Fasteners are highly resistant to corrosion, which makes them the number one choice of a wide range of industries when it comes to buying fasteners. In layman’s terms, corrosion resistance refers to a metal’s ability to deal with damage caused by oxidization as well as other chemical reactions. Stainless steel consists of 10.5 percent Chromium or more, which helps in increasing its corrosion resistance property. Because of its composition, it allows the development of a chromium oxide film on the surface of the metal, which saves it from getting damaged. Excellent Life Cycle Stainless steel may cost a little bit more originally, but it has lasting value. Stainless steel fasteners will last longer than other fasteners so you will have savings in the long term. Since the material offers excellent durability, stainless steel fasteners can be used in extreme temperatures and also underwater. No other material can offer such long-lasting benefits. They are more cost-effective in the long term. You will definitely save more over time, as the replacement of stainless steel fasteners needs to be carried out only once in a few decades. Better Visual appeal Stainless steel bolts are quite appealing in comparison to the rest of their counterparts, which is why they are used largely in manufacturing and construction. So, whether you talk about the vehicle you drive or your furniture products such as cupboards and bed, manufacturers use stainless steel nuts and bolts while developing them to maintain their visual appeal. Inexpensive Another big benefit of using stainless steel fasteners is that they are quite affordable. It means, if you are someone who loves carrying out do it yourself projects, you must buy them for accomplishing your task. Temperature resistant One of the most important advantages of using stainless steel bolts is that they are resistant to extreme cold and hot temperatures, which plays a crucial role in enhancing their usability even more. It means, if you are constructing a building in a temperature prone place, you can use stainless steel bolts in it for improving its performance. ISTEEL INDIA BLOG

Plastic valves have become increasingly popular for certain media and applications. And while CPV doesn’t manufacture plastic valves—they lack particular qualities necessary to the industries we serve—we can still discuss their advantages and disadvantages when compared to metal valves. You might think the title of this article is a spoiler if you’re fond of rhymes. Is it? You’ll need to read on to find out. The plastic valve industry has been around for little more than a half-­‐ century. So it’s relatively new, at least when compared to the metal valve industry, which likely originated in ancient Rome. There, valves made from bronze were instrumental in the development of canal systems that were, by every account, far ahead of their time. Still, despite the short history of plastic valves, they’ve come a long way. Grading Plastic Not all plastic resins are created equal; they come in various grades that are more or less suited to different applications. Mention plastic valves to most people, though, and flimsy ball valves probably come to mind. You’ll find these controlling water flow to swimming pools or irrigation systems, for example. They’re generally made of PVC (polyvinyl chloride), which is the most common plastic valve material in use today. The best PVC valves are typically rated for pressures up to 150 psi at 75° F. Their maximum safe operating temperature is 140° F, but pressure ratings will have fallen substantially with the increase in heat. A derivation of this material, chlorinated PVC, can handle temperatures up to 180° F. PVC alternatives developed to meet higher temperature and pressure ratings include PVDF (polyvinylidene difluoride), PTFE (polytetrafluoroethylene) and PEEK (polyether ether ketone). PVDF valves can be designed to achieve pressure ratings up to 230 psi. PTFE can safely manage temperatures up to 300° F. PEEK is the winner here, rated up to 500° F. For all these materials, as temperature and pressure ratings rise, so do prices. So while PEEK is a high-­‐performance polymer, it is also cost prohibitive for many applications. Metal valves, on the other hand, can perform as well as or better than PEEK at a lower cost. Considering plastic valves’ limitations, why manufacture them at all? There are a few primary reasons end users or system engineers may choose plastic. For less critical applications, it can be inexpensive. It’s also lightweight, which means reduced shipping costs. And even for more critical applications, like the manufacturing of corrosive chemicals or semiconductors, the highest quality plastic valves approach the reliability of their metal counterparts. Plastic valves do have their niche markets. Where Metal Shines For nearly every application plastic valves perform well, there exist metal counterparts that perform as well or better. Metal valves have stood the test of time—for a very long time. And just as certain plastic materials have been developed to serve different applications, the same is true of metal. CPV manufactures high-­‐quality valves made from bronze (though, without the high lead content that some surmise hastened the fall of the Roman empire), brass, stainless steel and Monel (a highly corrosion-­‐resistant nickel alloy). All go through extensive machining processes to ensure perfect fit and function, and lasting durability. In fact, some CPV-­‐manufactured valves have remained in service for as long as plastic valves have existed. That’s pretty incredible. With a media as innocuous as water, some might be attracted to plastic valves for their lower cost compared to, say, bronze or stainless steel. But even water can damage plastic valves. A pressure surge caused by the abrupt stop of flow—as when a valve shuts quickly—can cause what’s called fluid hammer. Water, being incompressible, is especially prone to this. The shockwave caused by the pressure surge could not only destroy the plastic valve, but could potentially damage the entire application. The valves and fittings CPV manufactures are used primarily in the petrochemical, industrial gas and shipbuilding industries. In fact, every US Navy surface vessel and submarine has been outfitted with CPV components. These industries rely on our highly engineered, expertly machined products to just work. In critical applications, failure is not an option. Some plastic valves may seem like inexpensive alternatives to their metal counterparts. But take into account the long-­‐term reliability of quality metal valves and fittings, and the total cost of ownership is in metal’s favor nearly every time. Long Story Short Metal valves are adaptable, strong, dependable and suitable for more applications than plastic valves. So, let’s finish where we started off. And the medal goes to…metal. CPV MANUFACTURING

Until stainless steel came and took it to another level, brass pipe fittings were primarily used in the industrial and commercial sectors. The improvement in material preferences came quickly after seeing the impressive advantages of stainless steel for other uses! Today, not only pipe fittings but also flanges and instrumentation valves are made of stainless steel. What Are Pipe Fittings? A pipe fitting is generally used to connect bores of two (or multiple) pipes or tubes to separate equipment. Manufacturers of stainless steel pipe fittings in India also suggest further use for pipe fittings, i.e. as a fluid flow control device. You can also use pipe fittings to close and seal any pipe. Pipe Fittings Can Be Bought In Two Forms Pipe Fittings are available in two forms, i.e. Male fittings and Female fittings. What is the difference? Female threads are used on the inside of threaded pipe fittings while male threads are fitted out on the pipe fittings. Pipe fittings typically have one female end with the other being male. These are known as street fittings. You can use pipe fittings to connect pipes and tubes in the following ways: By Threading Threaded (metal) pipes are threaded together in this process to connect to the standard fittings and pipes. By Slip-fit These pipes are designed with sleeves that help easily slip one pipe into another tube fitting. Why Stainless Steel Pipe Fittings Stainless steel is a type of steel that demonstrates high corrosion resistance. The steel is self-repairing due to the formation of a passive oxide film. This protective layer’s resistance properties improve with an increase in chromium content and molybdenum levels. Generally, the typical stainless steel alloys for piping contain 17-18 percent chromium content and 8-12 percent nickel content. Stainless Steel 304 Pipe Fittings and SS 316 Pipe Fittings are the most commonly used pipe fittings. Tips To Make Pipe Fittings Selection Easier There are different types of pipe fittings available which can make it difficult for buyers to choose the most suitable one according to the application it is needed for. Below are some helpful points that will make the selection process easier. Connection Type: Every fitting has two different connector types, i.e. one end could be male threaded and the other female threaded. Similarly, one end could be threaded while the other could feature a male slip. Materials Used In Construction: Experts don’t have a set rule here. But those pipe fittings are better that are of the same material as the pipe where fittings will be applied. There are some cases where this rule isn’t applied. Other important considerations are: Fitting type Size Check for flow Design Standards and codes Thickness Finding the appropriate pipe fitting, instrumentation valve and tube fitting for your application has become easier with the help of an extensive product catalog. ISTEEL INDIA BLOG

One of the more prominent trends in processing is the need for higher plastic pressures to mold parts. There are lots of reasons to go this way: longer flow paths, more complex geometries to achieve greater functionality, thinner walls to save weight, higher cavitation, stiffer polymers, and filled compounds. While these trends do cut costs, they also keep narrowing the molder’s processing window. What can the molder do to cope with this trend, regarding machines and processing strategy? Understanding the pressure requirements to fill and pack a part is a key to developing a reasonable processing window and higher quality and profits. The processor’s first step is to understand how machines develop plastic pressure, and make sure to buy the right press for the parts to be molded. Electric machines provide all pressures in “plastic” psi—there is no hydraulic pressure. Hybrids and full-hydraulic machines may report actual plastic pressure on the monitoring screen, or they may report hydraulic pressures. If your press reports hydraulic pressure, you must determine the intensification ratio for that screw size, in order to convert hydraulic pressure to “plastic” pressure. (For the calculation, see scientificmolding.com/articles/Intensification_ratio.pdf.) To duplicate processing conditions between machines you must duplicate “plastic” pressures, not hydraulic pressures. You can calibrate a hydraulic machine for accurate hydraulic pressure readings with a certified transducer, but I have yet to see a way to ensure the calibration of the machine pressure sensor on electric machines. It is important that any machine tells you the accurate pressure: If a machine tells you the injection pressure is 21,500 psi, you need to know that it is truly 21,500 psi. WHERE HAS ALL THE Pressure GONE? In Scientific Molding procedure, parts are filled 90% to 99% in the first injection stage: That is, we make a short shot. If the part is short we know the plastic pressure at the end of flow is zero. We also know the pressure in the nozzle from the reported or calculated plastic pressure. Nearly all machines report the pressure at transfer, or at the end of first-stage injection. This transfer pressure is not always peak pressure during injection. Let’s take an example: We are making a small 1-in.² insulator from PC with some thin walls in a 4-cavity mold. The machine reports a hydraulic pressure at transfer of 2040 psi (hydraulic), and the part is 96% full and short. To find the plastic pressure in the nozzle, you need to multiply 2040 psi × the intensification ratio of the machine, which in this case is 14.7:1. So the pressure in the nozzle is 29,988 psi. If we have a short shot, the “pressure loss” for filling the part to 96% full is the entire 29,988 psi. Where did all this pressure go? Is there anything we can do to reduce the pressure loss? The process window will open up and quality will be higher if lower pressures are required. The flow path is known: Plastic traveled through the nozzle, sprue, runner, gate, and finally filled the part. How much “plastic” pressure did each of these components eat up? To find out the pressure loss for each component of the flow path, we need to make a few short shots and maybe dig out a part or two. (Every mold will make a short shot in its life, so when you are building it make sure it has the ability to push out a short.) Adjust the cutoff or transfer position to make just a nub beyond the gate. Then adjust transfer position again to make only the sprue and runner; and finally take a full shot as a purge. If we record the pressure at transfer for these shots, we now have the data we need (see chart) and can make it look pretty by setting up a spreadsheet with a bar chart or graph (above). So where did all the pressure go—all 29,988 psi? The data shows that flow through the nozzle absorbed about 2400 psi; the sprue and runner consumed 12,036 psi; the gate about 3000 psi; and the part took about 12,000 psi. You can’t do anything about the part without your client’s permission, and the gate is well within normal limits; but the sprue and runner are ripe for alteration. But don’t simply open up the runner: The pressure loss will be less, but a larger runner also provides less shear, which will actually increase the viscosity of the polymer and wastes resin. You need a mold flow analysis to find the best compromise. PTONLINE

Over the years, people who are involved in the oil and gas industry have been innovating and creating ways to get accurate measurements. From extracting to delivering these raw materials, everyone in the business has been deeply invested in getting the most accurate measurements possible. Thus, scientists and engineers have been working long and hard to discover new ways and technologies to make more efficient metering systems. Because of their hard work, the creation of different flow meters materialized, and because of that, the oil and gas industry is still going strong today. These flow meters are used by industries, particularly gas and oil, to calculate the mass flow rate or volumetric flow rate of fluids. Such an application defines the capacity and type of flow meter. Gases, liquids, and fluids are measured in terms of mass flow rate and volumetric flow rate. Where and How Do Oil and Natural Gas Form? Before we tell you the different flow meters that are commonly used in the oil and gas industry, knowing the process of how industries collect raw materials should come first. Both of these raw materials are present on different geological sources. Mostly, gas and oil fields are present on sedimentary rocks like sandstone and limestone. The main reason is that these materials can easily pass through rocks, making them easier to accumulate. The capacity of the reservoirs found can be determined by its porosity, while the productivity is proportional to their permeability. To start a flow, they drill inside these rocks, which will make the fluids easier to extract. To either start, increase, or for continual flow, water is pumped inside the rocks, which are commonly located underground. High-pressured water is pumped in these rocks, which will increase the flow rates and increased extraction of fluids. A type of flow meter, called ABB’s electromagnetic flow meter, is used to accurately and precisely measure the water being pumped inside the rocks. However, there are certain cases where drilling and pumping water is not enough to acquire these substances. Oil or natural gas found on impermeable rocks is mostly unable to form into conventional means. These materials are called ‘unconventional hydrocarbons’, and they include shale oil, coal-bed methane, and shale gas. Because of the rock’s very low permeability, the accumulation should be stimulated to start a flow and enable the extraction process. To do this, a method called ‘hydraulic fracturing’ is necessary. In hydraulic fracturing, a mixture of sand and water is pumped inside the rocks. Because of the high pressure, small fractures (fissures) are made, which will make the materials free to move inside the foundation. Hydraulic fracturing is done by enabling these fissures to be open for the materials to move, which is what the sand does; opening these fractures, which results in high permeability. To get the precise measurement of the fracturing fluid and the blending of additives in the mix, ABB’s electromagnetic flow meter is used. Now that we have explained the overview of how the oil and gas industry get these raw substances; the next step is getting to know how they measure it with different types of metering systems. Coriolis Flow Meters The technology used in the Coriolis flowmeters is not precisely the newest in terms of measuring the natural substances in the oil and gas industry. The first industrial patent for the Coriolis flowmeter is dated back in the 1950s. However, the start of the application of the said technology in the field is not until 1970. And up until now, nothing has changed although the refinement of the meters for more accurate measurements. One of the original designs of the flow meter is that it features a single tube with thin walls. It is highly accurate; however, the practicality of the model is the primary concern because of its vibration issues. To address that, the design was changed into a two-tube design instead of one. Although having gone through different designs, the main principle of the Coriolis flowmeter has never changed. By creating inertia through oscillating tubes as the materials flow through them, the tubes twist. The number of twists is directly proportional to the mass flow rate. This is then measured flow meter transmitters and a sensor to make a linear flow signal. Using a Coriolis flowmeter has several advantages. One of these is that it is highly accurate. These flow meters are more commonly used to measure a wide range of petroleum products such as crude oil and natural gas. The main gist of the flow meter is that it measures mainly the mass flow rate instead of its volume. It makes it best for measuring petroleum products since the primary concern in measuring these products is the heat rather than the quantity. Typically, this type of flow meter applies to pipes with a diameter of 1 to 4 inches. But nowadays, larger models have been more available than before. Probably the only downside of Coriolis flowmeters is it is more expensive than other types of metering systems. This can be worth as it is more low maintenance than the other flow meters. Ultrasonic Flow Meters Ultrasonic flow meters measure the velocity of the fluid running through a pipe by the use of sound waves. A linear shift in its frequency will be noticeable once the speed of the fluid slowly increases. Ultrasonic flowmeters can be used for both measuring the velocity of the liquid inside and outside the pipe; inline designs mount the flow meter inside the tube while clamp-on models  measure the speed using transducers. However, clamp-ons are lower in accuracy than inline models. Thus, they are only used to spot checks to get the measurement immediately.Unlike the Coriolis flow meter, ultrasonic flow meters and other flow meters that are designed specifically for crude oils can be used inline for pipes that have a 20-inch measurement. Also, the clamp-on design is applicable in a lot of different things and is durable. Not to mention, it also has low maintenance requirements. Thermal Flow Meters In its primary sense, thermal flow meters measure the speed of the heat that dissipates as it is injected directly into a gas flow stream. Mostly, thermal flow meters are used exclusively for measuring gases. Heat dissipation varies depending on the composition and the temperature of the gas. Thermal flow meters are the best choice when either of the composition or the temperature is minimized or if that level of accuracy as within acceptable parameters. Turbine Flow Meters This type of meter uses a mechanical rotor that is attached to a shaft that is inside the pipe. It is then used to measure the volume of gas, fluid, or vapor that passes through the tube. As the substance passes through the pipe, the rotor spins with its speed depending on how fast the material passes through the pipeline. The rotational speed that results from the spinning of the rotor is determined by the use of sensors or other mechanical methods. Typically, magnetism is used to let the sensors get reading from the rotor, with the magnet located outside the pipe. With the use of signals, sensors and transmitters determine the volume of the material traveling inside the tube. Turbine flow meters are cheap in terms of pricing. Also, they give more accurate results when the substance measured is gas or any other material that has no debris at a slow flow rate. One disadvantage of using a turbine flow meter is that it does not work well with a varying flow as the mechanical parts can wear out significantly and will need immediate replacement. Also, turbine flow meters work best when measuring the mass of a gas with unknown properties. In addition to its uses, it is also commonly used for billing meters to measure the amount of gas or water in commercial, industrial, and residential buildings. However, in this aspect, it competes with positive displacement flow meters. The latter is more suitable with pipes with a measurement of 1.5 to 10 inches while turbine flow meters are best suited with pipes 10 inches or above in size. Differential Flow Meters Like its distant cousin, ultrasonic flow meter, it also measures the volume of the flow that passes through within the pipe. What sets it apart from other flow meters is its use of Bernoulli’s equation. Also, differential flow meters use constriction to slow down the flow and pressure of substance inside the pipe. As the flow pressure slowly increases, the pressure drop’s size also increases proportionately. The data from this event is transmitted on varying sets of pressure readings. With that information, it calculates the difference in pressure to get the measurement of the volumetric flow. Differential flow meters are typically low-cost. And different versions for different substances also exist to make accurate measurements of every fluid. Gases are special cases, though, because, to get the precise reading of a particular gas, differential flow meters should be combined with other sensors for different factors like temperature, pressure, the composition of the gas, and the gas’ density. Although it is an excellent flow meter on its own, industries prefer other types of metering systems. This is mostly due to its inaccuracy when other factors are involved, like temperature, pressure, etc. Also, to get the most accurate measurement of gas, it needs to combine with other sensors or get a different version of a differential flow meter altogether. Because of the mentioned factors, it can be hard to get an accurate reading. It is mainly the reason why the oil and gas industry prefers other types of metering, especially when dealing with gases. Positive Displacement Flow Meters There are different types of positive displacement meters: oval gear, piston, rotary, diaphragm, nutating disc, and helical. Positive displacement meters can be applicable for a wide variety of things that involve commercial, industrial, and residential applications. They are most commonly used to measure gas flow. Turbine flow meters, however, competes with positive displacement flow meters in this aspect. One of its advantages over turbine flow meters is that it is excellent in dealing with a steady flow rate in a pipeline that has a diameter of 10 inches or less. Both diaphragm and rotary-based positive displacement flow meters are typically used for measuring gas flow. Against competitors like Coriolis flowmeters, the latter is the first choice mainly because positive displacement flow meters do not have the required industry approvals for application in the field. Vortex Flow Meters One of the most versatile of flow meters, vortex flow meters, can easily measure gas, liquid, steam flows. Over the past years, vortex flowmeters lacked the necessary approvals for application in the industry. However, in 2007, the American Petroleum Institute had approved a draft standard for the use of the said flow meter. And since then, several companies in the industry have been actively working with API for further developments regarding this standard and its approval. The said standard is applied to liquid, steam, and gas flows and was extended in 2010 for further use. Despite having an uncertain future, designs were made explicitly for gas and liquid exists. Vortex flow meters have had a limited impact on the market in recent years, but a steady increase in its preference is present for future companies. However, its effect on the market regarding custody-transfer in natural gas is low because of other competitors like ultrasonic, differential pressure, and turbine flow meters. Conclusions There are a lot of technologies readily available for the oil and gas industry to use and adapt. Not to mention that the market has been introducing new types of flow meters waiting for the API’s approval. Due to the different fluids that a lot of industries collect, the need for low cost and maintenance metering systems is on the rise. This had led to creating bigger models of Coriolis flowmeters, making it one of the most used metering systems to date. PROJECTMATERIALS PLATRFORM